This is Info file ../info/emacs, produced by Makeinfo version 1.68 from the input file ../texi/emacs.texi. This is the thirteenth edition of the `GNU Emacs Manual', updated for Emacs version 20.7. INFO-DIR-SECTION Editors START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * Emacs: (emacs). The extensible self-documenting text editor. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY Published by the Free Software Foundation 59 Temple Place, Suite 330 Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the sections entitled "The GNU Manifesto", "Distribution" and "GNU General Public License" are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled "The GNU Manifesto", "Distribution" and "GNU General Public License" may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English.  File: emacs, Node: Format Faces, Next: Format Colors, Prev: Editing Format Info, Up: Formatted Text Faces in Formatted Text ----------------------- The Faces submenu lists various Emacs faces including `bold', `italic', and `underline'. Selecting one of these adds the chosen face to the region. *Note Faces::. You can also specify a face with these keyboard commands: `M-g d' Set the region, or the next inserted character, to the `default' face (`facemenu-set-default'). `M-g b' Set the region, or the next inserted character, to the `bold' face (`facemenu-set-bold'). `M-g i' Set the region, or the next inserted character, to the `italic' face (`facemenu-set-italic'). `M-g l' Set the region, or the next inserted character, to the `bold-italic' face (`facemenu-set-bold-italic'). `M-g u' Set the region, or the next inserted character, to the `underline' face (`facemenu-set-underline'). `M-g o FACE ' Set the region, or the next inserted character, to the face FACE (`facemenu-set-face'). If you use these commands with a prefix argument--or, in Transient Mark mode, if the region is not active--then these commands specify a face to use for your next self-inserting input. *Note Transient Mark::. This applies to both the keyboard commands and the menu commands. Enriched mode defines two additional faces: `excerpt' and `fixed'. These correspond to codes used in the text/enriched file format. The `excerpt' face is intended for quotations. This face is the same as `italic' unless you customize it (*note Face Customization::.). The `fixed' face is meant to say, "Use a fixed-width font for this part of the text." Emacs currently supports only fixed-width fonts; therefore, the `fixed' annotation is not necessary now. However, we plan to support variable width fonts in future Emacs versions, and other systems that display text/enriched format may not use a fixed-width font as the default. So if you specifically want a certain part of the text to use a fixed-width font, you should specify the `fixed' face for that part. The `fixed' face is normally defined to use a different font from the default. However, different systems have different fonts installed, so you may need to customize this. If your terminal cannot display different faces, you will not be able to see them, but you can still edit documents containing faces. You can even add faces and colors to documents. They will be visible when the file is viewed on a terminal that can display them.  File: emacs, Node: Format Colors, Next: Format Indentation, Prev: Format Faces, Up: Formatted Text Colors in Formatted Text ------------------------ You can specify foreground and background colors for portions of the text. There is a menu for specifying the foreground color and a menu for specifying the background color. Each color menu lists all the colors that you have used in Enriched mode in the current Emacs session. If you specify a color with a prefix argument--or, in Transient Mark mode, if the region is not active--then it applies to your next self-inserting input. *Note Transient Mark::. Otherwise, the command applies to the region. Each color menu contains one additional item: `Other'. You can use this item to specify a color that is not listed in the menu; it reads the color name with the minibuffer. To display list of available colors and their names, use the `Display Colors' menu item in the Text Properties menu (*note Editing Format Info::.). Any color that you specify in this way, or that is mentioned in a formatted text file that you read in, is added to both color menus for the duration of the Emacs session. There are no key bindings for specifying colors, but you can do so with the extended commands `M-x facemenu-set-foreground' and `M-x facemenu-set-background'. Both of these commands read the name of the color with the minibuffer.  File: emacs, Node: Format Indentation, Next: Format Justification, Prev: Format Colors, Up: Formatted Text Indentation in Formatted Text ----------------------------- When editing formatted text, you can specify different amounts of indentation for the right or left margin of an entire paragraph or a part of a paragraph. The margins you specify automatically affect the Emacs fill commands (*note Filling::.) and line-breaking commands. The Indentation submenu provides a convenient interface for specifying these properties. The submenu contains four items: `Indent More' Indent the region by 4 columns (`increase-left-margin'). In Enriched mode, this command is also available on `C-x '; if you supply a numeric argument, that says how many columns to add to the margin (a negative argument reduces the number of columns). `Indent Less' Remove 4 columns of indentation from the region. `Indent Right More' Make the text narrower by indenting 4 columns at the right margin. `Indent Right Less' Remove 4 columns of indentation from the right margin. You can use these commands repeatedly to increase or decrease the indentation. The most common way to use these commands is to change the indentation of an entire paragraph. However, that is not the only use. You can change the margins at any point; the new values take effect at the end of the line (for right margins) or the beginning of the next line (for left margins). This makes it possible to format paragraphs with "hanging indents", which means that the first line is indented less than subsequent lines. To set up a hanging indent, increase the indentation of the region starting after the first word of the paragraph and running until the end of the paragraph. Indenting the first line of a paragraph is easier. Set the margin for the whole paragraph where you want it to be for the body of the paragraph, then indent the first line by inserting extra spaces or tabs. Sometimes, as a result of editing, the filling of a paragraph becomes messed up--parts of the paragraph may extend past the left or right margins. When this happens, use `M-q' (`fill-paragraph') to refill the paragraph. The variable `standard-indent' specifies how many columns these commands should add to or subtract from the indentation. The default value is 4. The overall default right margin for Enriched mode is controlled by the variable `fill-column', as usual. The fill prefix, if any, works in addition to the specified paragraph indentation: `C-x .' does not include the specified indentation's whitespace in the new value for the fill prefix, and the fill commands look for the fill prefix after the indentation on each line. *Note Fill Prefix::.  File: emacs, Node: Format Justification, Next: Format Properties, Prev: Format Indentation, Up: Formatted Text Justification in Formatted Text ------------------------------- When editing formatted text, you can specify various styles of justification for a paragraph. The style you specify automatically affects the Emacs fill commands. The Justification submenu provides a convenient interface for specifying the style. The submenu contains five items: `Flush Left' This is the most common style of justification (at least for English). Lines are aligned at the left margin but left uneven at the right. `Flush Right' This aligns each line with the right margin. Spaces and tabs are added on the left, if necessary, to make lines line up on the right. `Full' This justifies the text, aligning both edges of each line. Justified text looks very nice in a printed book, where the spaces can all be adjusted equally, but it does not look as nice with a fixed-width font on the screen. Perhaps a future version of Emacs will be able to adjust the width of spaces in a line to achieve elegant justification. `Center' This centers every line between the current margins. `None' This turns off filling entirely. Each line will remain as you wrote it; the fill and auto-fill functions will have no effect on text which has this setting. You can, however, still indent the left margin. In unfilled regions, all newlines are treated as hard newlines (*note Hard and Soft Newlines::.) . In Enriched mode, you can also specify justification from the keyboard using the `M-j' prefix character: `M-j l' Make the region left-filled (`set-justification-left'). `M-j r' Make the region right-filled (`set-justification-right'). `M-j f' Make the region fully-justified (`set-justification-full'). `M-j c' `M-S' Make the region centered (`set-justification-center'). `M-j u' Make the region unfilled (`set-justification-none'). Justification styles apply to entire paragraphs. All the justification-changing commands operate on the paragraph containing point, or, if the region is active, on all paragraphs which overlap the region. The default justification style is specified by the variable `default-justification'. Its value should be one of the symbols `left', `right', `full', `center', or `none'.  File: emacs, Node: Format Properties, Next: Forcing Enriched Mode, Prev: Format Justification, Up: Formatted Text Setting Other Text Properties ----------------------------- The Other Properties menu lets you add or remove three other useful text properties: `read-only', `invisible' and `intangible'. The `intangible' property disallows moving point within the text, the `invisible' text property hides text from display, and the `read-only' property disallows alteration of the text. Each of these special properties has a menu item to add it to the region. The last menu item, `Remove Special', removes all of these special properties from the text in the region. Currently, the `invisible' and `intangible' properties are *not* saved in the text/enriched format. The `read-only' property is saved, but it is not a standard part of the text/enriched format, so other editors may not respect it.  File: emacs, Node: Forcing Enriched Mode, Prev: Format Properties, Up: Formatted Text Forcing Enriched Mode --------------------- Normally, Emacs knows when you are editing formatted text because it recognizes the special annotations used in the file that you visited. However, there are situations in which you must take special actions to convert file contents or turn on Enriched mode: * When you visit a file that was created with some other editor, Emacs may not recognize the file as being in the text/enriched format. In this case, when you visit the file you will see the formatting commands rather than the formatted text. Type `M-x format-decode-buffer' to translate it. * When you *insert* a file into a buffer, rather than visiting it. Emacs does the necessary conversions on the text which you insert, but it does not enable Enriched mode. If you wish to do that, type `M-x enriched-mode'. The command `format-decode-buffer' translates text in various formats into Emacs's internal format. It asks you to specify the format to translate from; however, normally you can type just , which tells Emacs to guess the format. If you wish to look at text/enriched file in its raw form, as a sequence of characters rather than as formatted text, use the `M-x find-file-literally' command. This visits a file, like `find-file', but does not do format conversion. It also inhibits character code conversion (*note Coding Systems::.) and automatic uncompression (*note Compressed Files::.). To disable format conversion but allow character code conversion and/or automatic uncompression if appropriate, use `format-find-file' with suitable arguments.  File: emacs, Node: Programs, Next: Building, Prev: Text, Up: Top Editing Programs **************** Emacs has many commands designed to understand the syntax of programming languages such as Lisp and C. These commands can * Move over or kill balanced expressions or "sexps" (*note Lists::.). * Move over or mark top-level expressions--"defuns", in Lisp; functions, in C (*note Defuns::.). * Show how parentheses balance (*note Matching::.). * Insert, kill or align comments (*note Comments::.). * Follow the usual indentation conventions of the language (*note Program Indent::.). The commands for words, sentences and paragraphs are very useful in editing code even though their canonical application is for editing human language text. Most symbols contain words (*note Words::.); sentences can be found in strings and comments (*note Sentences::.). Paragraphs per se don't exist in code, but the paragraph commands are useful anyway, because programming language major modes define paragraphs to begin and end at blank lines (*note Paragraphs::.). Judicious use of blank lines to make the program clearer will also provide useful chunks of text for the paragraph commands to work on. The selective display feature is useful for looking at the overall structure of a function (*note Selective Display::.). This feature causes only the lines that are indented less than a specified amount to appear on the screen. * Menu: * Program Modes:: Major modes for editing programs. * Lists:: Expressions with balanced parentheses. * List Commands:: The commands for working with list and sexps. * Defuns:: Each program is made up of separate functions. There are editing commands to operate on them. * Program Indent:: Adjusting indentation to show the nesting. * Matching:: Insertion of a close-delimiter flashes matching open. * Comments:: Inserting, killing, and aligning comments. * Balanced Editing:: Inserting two matching parentheses at once, etc. * Symbol Completion:: Completion on symbol names of your program or language. * Which Function:: Which Function mode shows which function you are in. * Documentation:: Getting documentation of functions you plan to call. * Change Log:: Maintaining a change history for your program. * Tags:: Go direct to any function in your program in one command. Tags remembers which file it is in. * Emerge:: A convenient way of merging two versions of a program. * C Modes:: Special commands of C, C++, Objective-C, Java, and Pike modes. * Fortran:: Fortran mode and its special features. * Asm Mode:: Asm mode and its special features.  File: emacs, Node: Program Modes, Next: Lists, Up: Programs Major Modes for Programming Languages ===================================== Emacs also has major modes for the programming languages Lisp, Scheme (a variant of Lisp), Awk, C, C++, Fortran, Icon, Java, Objective-C, Pascal, Perl, Pike, CORBA IDL, and Tcl. There is also a major mode for makefiles, called Makefile mode. An second alternative mode for Perl is called CPerl mode. Ideally, a major mode should be implemented for each programming language that you might want to edit with Emacs; but often the mode for one language can serve for other syntactically similar languages. The language modes that exist are those that someone decided to take the trouble to write. There are several forms of Lisp mode, which differ in the way they interface to Lisp execution. *Note Executing Lisp::. Each of the programming language major modes defines the key to run an indentation function that knows the indentation conventions of that language and updates the current line's indentation accordingly. For example, in C mode is bound to `c-indent-line'. `C-j' is normally defined to do followed by ; thus, it too indents in a mode-specific fashion. In most programming languages, indentation is likely to vary from line to line. So the major modes for those languages rebind to treat a tab as if it were the equivalent number of spaces (using the command `backward-delete-char-untabify'). This makes it possible to rub out indentation one column at a time without worrying whether it is made up of spaces or tabs. Use `C-b C-d' to delete a tab character before point, in these modes. Programming language modes define paragraphs to be separated only by blank lines, so that the paragraph commands remain useful. Auto Fill mode, if enabled in a programming language major mode, indents the new lines which it creates. Turning on a major mode runs a normal hook called the "mode hook", which is the value of a Lisp variable. Each major mode has a mode hook, and the hook's name is always made from the mode command's name by adding `-hook'. For example, turning on C mode runs the hook `c-mode-hook', while turning on Lisp mode runs the hook `lisp-mode-hook'. *Note Hooks::.  File: emacs, Node: Lists, Next: List Commands, Prev: Program Modes, Up: Programs Lists and Sexps =============== By convention, Emacs keys for dealing with balanced expressions are usually Control-Meta characters. They tend to be analogous in function to their Control and Meta equivalents. These commands are usually thought of as pertaining to expressions in programming languages, but can be useful with any language in which some sort of parentheses exist (including human languages). These commands fall into two classes. Some deal only with "lists" (parenthetical groupings). They see nothing except parentheses, brackets, braces (whichever ones must balance in the language you are working with), and escape characters that might be used to quote those. The other commands deal with expressions or "sexps". The word `sexp' is derived from "s-expression", the ancient term for an expression in Lisp. But in Emacs, the notion of `sexp' is not limited to Lisp. It refers to an expression in whatever language your program is written in. Each programming language has its own major mode, which customizes the syntax tables so that expressions in that language count as sexps. Sexps typically include symbols, numbers, and string constants, as well as anything contained in parentheses, brackets or braces. In languages that use prefix and infix operators, such as C, it is not possible for all expressions to be sexps. For example, C mode does not recognize `foo + bar' as a sexp, even though it *is* a C expression; it recognizes `foo' as one sexp and `bar' as another, with the `+' as punctuation between them. This is a fundamental ambiguity: both `foo + bar' and `foo' are legitimate choices for the sexp to move over if point is at the `f'. Note that `(foo + bar)' is a single sexp in C mode. Some languages have obscure forms of expression syntax that nobody has bothered to make Emacs understand properly.  File: emacs, Node: List Commands, Next: Defuns, Prev: Lists, Up: Programs List And Sexp Commands ====================== `C-M-f' Move forward over a sexp (`forward-sexp'). `C-M-b' Move backward over a sexp (`backward-sexp'). `C-M-k' Kill sexp forward (`kill-sexp'). `C-M-' Kill sexp backward (`backward-kill-sexp'). `C-M-u' Move up and backward in list structure (`backward-up-list'). `C-M-d' Move down and forward in list structure (`down-list'). `C-M-n' Move forward over a list (`forward-list'). `C-M-p' Move backward over a list (`backward-list'). `C-M-t' Transpose expressions (`transpose-sexps'). `C-M-@' Put mark after following expression (`mark-sexp'). To move forward over a sexp, use `C-M-f' (`forward-sexp'). If the first significant character after point is an opening delimiter (`(' in Lisp; `(', `[' or `{' in C), `C-M-f' moves past the matching closing delimiter. If the character begins a symbol, string, or number, `C-M-f' moves over that. The command `C-M-b' (`backward-sexp') moves backward over a sexp. The detailed rules are like those above for `C-M-f', but with directions reversed. If there are any prefix characters (single-quote, backquote and comma, in Lisp) preceding the sexp, `C-M-b' moves back over them as well. The sexp commands move across comments as if they were whitespace in most modes. `C-M-f' or `C-M-b' with an argument repeats that operation the specified number of times; with a negative argument, it moves in the opposite direction. Killing a whole sexp can be done with `C-M-k' (`kill-sexp') or `C-M-' (`backward-kill-sexp'). `C-M-k' kills the characters that `C-M-f' would move over, and `C-M-' kills the characters that `C-M-b' would move over. The "list commands" move over lists, as the sexp commands do, but skip blithely over any number of other kinds of sexps (symbols, strings, etc.). They are `C-M-n' (`forward-list') and `C-M-p' (`backward-list'). The main reason they are useful is that they usually ignore comments (since the comments usually do not contain any lists). `C-M-n' and `C-M-p' stay at the same level in parentheses, when that's possible. To move *up* one (or N) levels, use `C-M-u' (`backward-up-list'). `C-M-u' moves backward up past one unmatched opening delimiter. A positive argument serves as a repeat count; a negative argument reverses direction of motion and also requests repetition, so it moves forward and up one or more levels. To move *down* in list structure, use `C-M-d' (`down-list'). In Lisp mode, where `(' is the only opening delimiter, this is nearly the same as searching for a `('. An argument specifies the number of levels of parentheses to go down. A somewhat random-sounding command which is nevertheless handy is `C-M-t' (`transpose-sexps'), which drags the previous sexp across the next one. An argument serves as a repeat count, and a negative argument drags backwards (thus canceling out the effect of `C-M-t' with a positive argument). An argument of zero, rather than doing nothing, transposes the sexps ending after point and the mark. To set the region around the next sexp in the buffer, use `C-M-@' (`mark-sexp'), which sets mark at the same place that `C-M-f' would move to. `C-M-@' takes arguments like `C-M-f'. In particular, a negative argument is useful for putting the mark at the beginning of the previous sexp. The list and sexp commands' understanding of syntax is completely controlled by the syntax table. Any character can, for example, be declared to be an opening delimiter and act like an open parenthesis. *Note Syntax::.  File: emacs, Node: Defuns, Next: Program Indent, Prev: List Commands, Up: Programs Defuns ====== In Emacs, a parenthetical grouping at the top level in the buffer is called a "defun". The name derives from the fact that most top-level lists in a Lisp file are instances of the special form `defun', but any top-level parenthetical grouping counts as a defun in Emacs parlance regardless of what its contents are, and regardless of the programming language in use. For example, in C, the body of a function definition is a defun. `C-M-a' Move to beginning of current or preceding defun (`beginning-of-defun'). `C-M-e' Move to end of current or following defun (`end-of-defun'). `C-M-h' Put region around whole current or following defun (`mark-defun'). The commands to move to the beginning and end of the current defun are `C-M-a' (`beginning-of-defun') and `C-M-e' (`end-of-defun'). If you wish to operate on the current defun, use `C-M-h' (`mark-defun') which puts point at the beginning and mark at the end of the current or next defun. For example, this is the easiest way to get ready to move the defun to a different place in the text. In C mode, `C-M-h' runs the function `c-mark-function', which is almost the same as `mark-defun'; the difference is that it backs up over the argument declarations, function name and returned data type so that the entire C function is inside the region. *Note Marking Objects::. Emacs assumes that any open-parenthesis found in the leftmost column is the start of a defun. Therefore, *never put an open-parenthesis at the left margin in a Lisp file unless it is the start of a top-level list. Never put an open-brace or other opening delimiter at the beginning of a line of C code unless it starts the body of a function.* The most likely problem case is when you want an opening delimiter at the start of a line inside a string. To avoid trouble, put an escape character (`\', in C and Emacs Lisp, `/' in some other Lisp dialects) before the opening delimiter. It will not affect the contents of the string. In the remotest past, the original Emacs found defuns by moving upward a level of parentheses until there were no more levels to go up. This always required scanning all the way back to the beginning of the buffer, even for a small function. To speed up the operation, Emacs was changed to assume that any `(' (or other character assigned the syntactic class of opening-delimiter) at the left margin is the start of a defun. This heuristic is nearly always right and avoids the costly scan; however, it mandates the convention described above.  File: emacs, Node: Program Indent, Next: Matching, Prev: Defuns, Up: Programs Indentation for Programs ======================== The best way to keep a program properly indented is to use Emacs to reindent it as you change it. Emacs has commands to indent properly either a single line, a specified number of lines, or all of the lines inside a single parenthetical grouping. * Menu: * Basic Indent:: Indenting a single line. * Multi-line Indent:: Commands to reindent many lines at once. * Lisp Indent:: Specifying how each Lisp function should be indented. * C Indent:: Extra features for indenting C and related modes. * Custom C Indent:: Controlling indentation style for C and related modes. Emacs also provides a Lisp pretty-printer in the library `pp'. This program reformats a Lisp object with indentation chosen to look nice.  File: emacs, Node: Basic Indent, Next: Multi-line Indent, Up: Program Indent Basic Program Indentation Commands ---------------------------------- `' Adjust indentation of current line. `C-j' Equivalent to followed by (`newline-and-indent'). The basic indentation command is , which gives the current line the correct indentation as determined from the previous lines. The function that runs depends on the major mode; it is `lisp-indent-line' in Lisp mode, `c-indent-line' in C mode, etc. These functions understand different syntaxes for different languages, but they all do about the same thing. in any programming-language major mode inserts or deletes whitespace at the beginning of the current line, independent of where point is in the line. If point is inside the whitespace at the beginning of the line, leaves it at the end of that whitespace; otherwise, leaves point fixed with respect to the characters around it. Use `C-q ' to insert a tab at point. When entering lines of new code, use `C-j' (`newline-and-indent'), which is equivalent to a followed by a . `C-j' creates a blank line and then gives it the appropriate indentation. indents the second and following lines of the body of a parenthetical grouping each under the preceding one; therefore, if you alter one line's indentation to be nonstandard, the lines below will tend to follow it. This behavior is convenient in cases where you have overridden the standard result of because you find it unaesthetic for a particular line. Remember that an open-parenthesis, open-brace or other opening delimiter at the left margin is assumed by Emacs (including the indentation routines) to be the start of a function. Therefore, you must never have an opening delimiter in column zero that is not the beginning of a function, not even inside a string. This restriction is vital for making the indentation commands fast; you must simply accept it. *Note Defuns::, for more information on this.  File: emacs, Node: Multi-line Indent, Next: Lisp Indent, Prev: Basic Indent, Up: Program Indent Indenting Several Lines ----------------------- When you wish to reindent several lines of code which have been altered or moved to a different level in the list structure, you have several commands available. `C-M-q' Reindent all the lines within one list (`indent-sexp'). `C-u ' Shift an entire list rigidly sideways so that its first line is properly indented. `C-M-\' Reindent all lines in the region (`indent-region'). You can reindent the contents of a single list by positioning point before the beginning of it and typing `C-M-q' (`indent-sexp' in Lisp mode, `c-indent-exp' in C mode; also bound to other suitable commands in other modes). The indentation of the line the sexp starts on is not changed; therefore, only the relative indentation within the list, and not its position, is changed. To correct the position as well, type a before the `C-M-q'. If the relative indentation within a list is correct but the indentation of its first line is not, go to that line and type `C-u '. with a numeric argument reindents the current line as usual, then reindents by the same amount all the lines in the grouping starting on the current line. In other words, it reindents the whole grouping rigidly as a unit. It is clever, though, and does not alter lines that start inside strings, or C preprocessor lines when in C mode. Another way to specify the range to be reindented is with the region. The command `C-M-\' (`indent-region') applies to every line whose first character is between point and mark.  File: emacs, Node: Lisp Indent, Next: C Indent, Prev: Multi-line Indent, Up: Program Indent Customizing Lisp Indentation ---------------------------- The indentation pattern for a Lisp expression can depend on the function called by the expression. For each Lisp function, you can choose among several predefined patterns of indentation, or define an arbitrary one with a Lisp program. The standard pattern of indentation is as follows: the second line of the expression is indented under the first argument, if that is on the same line as the beginning of the expression; otherwise, the second line is indented underneath the function name. Each following line is indented under the previous line whose nesting depth is the same. If the variable `lisp-indent-offset' is non-`nil', it overrides the usual indentation pattern for the second line of an expression, so that such lines are always indented `lisp-indent-offset' more columns than the containing list. The standard pattern is overridden for certain functions. Functions whose names start with `def' always indent the second line by `lisp-body-indent' extra columns beyond the open-parenthesis starting the expression. The standard pattern can be overridden in various ways for individual functions, according to the `lisp-indent-function' property of the function name. There are four possibilities for this property: `nil' This is the same as no property; the standard indentation pattern is used. `defun' The pattern used for function names that start with `def' is used for this function also. a number, NUMBER The first NUMBER arguments of the function are "distinguished" arguments; the rest are considered the "body" of the expression. A line in the expression is indented according to whether the first argument on it is distinguished or not. If the argument is part of the body, the line is indented `lisp-body-indent' more columns than the open-parenthesis starting the containing expression. If the argument is distinguished and is either the first or second argument, it is indented *twice* that many extra columns. If the argument is distinguished and not the first or second argument, the standard pattern is followed for that line. a symbol, SYMBOL SYMBOL should be a function name; that function is called to calculate the indentation of a line within this expression. The function receives two arguments: STATE The value returned by `parse-partial-sexp' (a Lisp primitive for indentation and nesting computation) when it parses up to the beginning of this line. POS The position at which the line being indented begins. It should return either a number, which is the number of columns of indentation for that line, or a list whose car is such a number. The difference between returning a number and returning a list is that a number says that all following lines at the same nesting level should be indented just like this one; a list says that following lines might call for different indentations. This makes a difference when the indentation is being computed by `C-M-q'; if the value is a number, `C-M-q' need not recalculate indentation for the following lines until the end of the list.  File: emacs, Node: C Indent, Next: Custom C Indent, Prev: Lisp Indent, Up: Program Indent Commands for C Indentation -------------------------- Here are the commands for indentation in C mode and related modes: `C-c C-q' Reindent the current top-level function definition or aggregate type declaration (`c-indent-defun'). `C-M-q' Reindent each line in the balanced expression that follows point (`c-indent-exp'). A prefix argument inhibits error checking and warning messages about invalid syntax. `' Reindent the current line, and/or in some cases insert a tab character (`c-indent-command'). If `c-tab-always-indent' is `t', this command always reindents the current line and does nothing else. This is the default. If that variable is `nil', this command reindents the current line only if point is at the left margin or in the line's indentation; otherwise, it inserts a tab (or the equivalent number of spaces, if `indent-tabs-mode' is `nil'). Any other value (not `nil' or `t') means always reindent the line, and also insert a tab if within a comment, a string, or a preprocessor directive. `C-u ' Reindent the current line according to its syntax; also rigidly reindent any other lines of the expression that starts on the current line. *Note Multi-line Indent::. To reindent the whole current buffer, type `C-x h C-M-\'. This first selects the whole buffer as the region, then reindents that region. To reindent the current block, use `C-M-u C-M-q'. This moves to the front of the block and then reindents it all.  File: emacs, Node: Custom C Indent, Prev: C Indent, Up: Program Indent Customizing C Indentation ------------------------- C mode and related modes use a simple yet flexible mechanism for customizing indentation. The mechanism works in two steps: first it classifies the line syntactically according to its contents and context; second, it associates each kind of syntactic construct with an indentation offset which you can customize. * Menu: * Syntactic Analysis:: * Indentation Calculation:: * Changing Indent Style:: * Syntactic Symbols:: * Variables for C Indent:: * C Indent Styles::  File: emacs, Node: Syntactic Analysis, Next: Indentation Calculation, Up: Custom C Indent Step 1--Syntactic Analysis .......................... In the first step, the C indentation mechanism looks at the line before the one you are currently indenting and determines the syntactic components of the construct on that line. It builds a list of these syntactic components, each of which contains a "syntactic symbol" and sometimes also a buffer position. Some syntactic symbols describe grammatical elements, for example `statement' and `substatement'; others describe locations amidst grammatical elements, for example `class-open' and `knr-argdecl'. Conceptually, a line of C code is always indented relative to the indentation of some line higher up in the buffer. This is represented by the buffer positions in the syntactic component list. Here is an example. Suppose we have the following code in a C++ mode buffer (the line numbers don't actually appear in the buffer): 1: void swap (int& a, int& b) 2: { 3: int tmp = a; 4: a = b; 5: b = tmp; 6: } If you type `C-c C-s' (which runs the command `c-show-syntactic-information') on line 4, it shows the result of the indentation mechanism for that line: ((statement . 32)) This indicates that the line is a statement and it is indented relative to buffer position 32, which happens to be the `i' in `int' on line 3. If you move the cursor to line 3 and type `C-c C-s', it displays this: ((defun-block-intro . 28)) This indicates that the `int' line is the first statement in a block, and is indented relative to buffer position 28, which is the brace just after the function header. Here is another example: 1: int add (int val, int incr, int doit) 2: { 3: if (doit) 4: { 5: return (val + incr); 6: } 7: return (val); 8: } Typing `C-c C-s' on line 4 displays this: ((substatement-open . 43)) This says that the brace *opens* a substatement block. By the way, a "substatement" indicates the line after an `if', `else', `while', `do', `switch', `for', `try', `catch', `finally', or `synchronized' statement. Within the C indentation commands, after a line has been analyzed syntactically for indentation, the variable `c-syntactic-context' contains a list that describes the results. Each element in this list is a "syntactic component": a cons cell containing a syntactic symbol and (optionally) its corresponding buffer position. There may be several elements in a component list; typically only one element has a buffer position.  File: emacs, Node: Indentation Calculation, Next: Changing Indent Style, Prev: Syntactic Analysis, Up: Custom C Indent Step 2--Indentation Calculation ............................... The C indentation mechanism calculates the indentation for the current line using the list of syntactic components, `c-syntactic-context', derived from syntactic analysis. Each component is a cons cell that contains a syntactic symbol and may also contain a buffer position. Each component contributes to the final total indentation of the line in two ways. First, the syntactic symbol identifies an element of `c-offsets-alist', which is an association list mapping syntactic symbols into indentation offsets. Each syntactic symbol's offset adds to the total indentation. Second, if the component includes a buffer position, the column number of that position adds to the indentation. All these offsets and column numbers, added together, give the total indentation. The following examples demonstrate the workings of the C indentation mechanism: 1: void swap (int& a, int& b) 2: { 3: int tmp = a; 4: a = b; 5: b = tmp; 6: } Suppose that point is on line 3 and you type to reindent the line. As explained above (*note Syntactic Analysis::.), the syntactic component list for that line is: ((defun-block-intro . 28)) In this case, the indentation calculation first looks up `defun-block-intro' in the `c-offsets-alist' alist. Suppose that it finds the integer 2; it adds this to the running total (initialized to zero), yielding a updated total indentation of 2 spaces. The next step is to find the column number of buffer position 28. Since the brace at buffer position 28 is in column zero, this adds 0 to the running total. Since this line has only one syntactic component, the total indentation for the line is 2 spaces. 1: int add (int val, int incr, int doit) 2: { 3: if (doit) 4: { 5: return(val + incr); 6: } 7: return(val); 8: } If you type on line 4, the same process is performed, but with different data. The syntactic component list for this line is: ((substatement-open . 43)) Here, the indentation calculation's first job is to look up the symbol `substatement-open' in `c-offsets-alist'. Let's assume that the offset for this symbol is 2. At this point the running total is 2 (0 + 2 = 2). Then it adds the column number of buffer position 43, which is the `i' in `if' on line 3. This character is in column 2 on that line. Adding this yields a total indentation of 4 spaces. If a syntactic symbol in the analysis of a line does not appear in `c-offsets-alist', it is ignored; if in addition the variable `c-strict-syntax-p' is non-`nil', it is an error.  File: emacs, Node: Changing Indent Style, Next: Syntactic Symbols, Prev: Indentation Calculation, Up: Custom C Indent Changing Indentation Style .......................... There are two ways to customize the indentation style for the C-like modes. First, you can select one of several predefined styles, each of which specifies offsets for all the syntactic symbols. For more flexibility, you can customize the handling of individual syntactic symbols. *Note Syntactic Symbols::, for a list of all defined syntactic symbols. `M-x c-set-style STYLE ' Select predefined indentation style STYLE. Type `?' when entering STYLE to see a list of supported styles; to find out what a style looks like, select it and reindent some C code. `C-c C-o SYMBOL OFFSET ' Set the indentation offset for syntactic symbol SYMBOL (`c-set-offset'). The second argument OFFSET specifies the new indentation offset. The `c-offsets-alist' variable controls the amount of indentation to give to each syntactic symbol. Its value is an association list, and each element of the list has the form `(SYNTACTIC-SYMBOL . OFFSET)'. By changing the offsets for various syntactic symbols, you can customize indentation in fine detail. To change this alist, use `c-set-offset' (see below). Each offset value in `c-offsets-alist' can be an integer, a function or variable name, a list, or one of the following symbols: `+', `-', `++', `--', `*', or `/', indicating positive or negative multiples of the variable `c-basic-offset'. Thus, if you want to change the levels of indentation to be 3 spaces instead of 2 spaces, set `c-basic-offset' to 3. Using a function as the offset value provides the ultimate flexibility in customizing indentation. The function is called with a single argument containing the `cons' of the syntactic symbol and the buffer position, if any. The function should return an integer offset. If the offset value is a list, its elements are processed according to the rules above until a non-`nil' value is found. That value is then added to the total indentation in the normal manner. The primary use for this is to combine the results of several functions. The command `C-c C-o' (`c-set-offset') is the easiest way to set offsets, both interactively or in your `~/.emacs' file. First specify the syntactic symbol, then the offset you want. *Note Syntactic Symbols::, for a list of valid syntactic symbols and their meanings.  File: emacs, Node: Syntactic Symbols, Next: Variables for C Indent, Prev: Changing Indent Style, Up: Custom C Indent Syntactic Symbols ................. Here is a table of valid syntactic symbols for indentation in C and related modes, with their syntactic meanings. Normally, most of these symbols are assigned offsets in `c-offsets-alist'. `string' Inside a multi-line string. `c' Inside a multi-line C style block comment. `defun-open' On a brace that opens a function definition. `defun-close' On a brace that closes a function definition. `defun-block-intro' In the first line in a top-level defun. `class-open' On a brace that opens a class definition. `class-close' On a brace that closes a class definition. `inline-open' On a brace that opens an in-class inline method. `inline-close' On a brace that closes an in-class inline method. `extern-lang-open' On a brace that opens an external language block. `extern-lang-close' On a brace that closes an external language block. `func-decl-cont' The region between a function definition's argument list and the defun opening brace (excluding K&R function definitions). In C, you cannot put anything but whitespace and comments between them; in C++ and Java, `throws' declarations and other things can appear in this context. `knr-argdecl-intro' On the first line of a K&R C argument declaration. `knr-argdecl' In one of the subsequent lines in a K&R C argument declaration. `topmost-intro' On the first line in a topmost construct definition. `topmost-intro-cont' On the topmost definition continuation lines. `member-init-intro' On the first line in a member initialization list. `member-init-cont' On one of the subsequent member initialization list lines. `inher-intro' On the first line of a multiple inheritance list. `inher-cont' On one of the subsequent multiple inheritance lines. `block-open' On a statement block open brace. `block-close' On a statement block close brace. `brace-list-open' On the opening brace of an `enum' or `static' array list. `brace-list-close' On the closing brace of an `enum' or `static' array list. `brace-list-intro' On the first line in an `enum' or `static' array list. `brace-list-entry' On one of the subsequent lines in an `enum' or `static' array list. `brace-entry-open' On one of the subsequent lines in an `enum' or `static' array list, when the line begins with an open brace. `statement' On an ordinary statement. `statement-cont' On a continuation line of a statement. `statement-block-intro' On the first line in a new statement block. `statement-case-intro' On the first line in a `case' "block." `statement-case-open' On the first line in a `case' block starting with brace. `inexpr-statement' On a statement block inside an expression. This is used for a GNU extension to the C language, and for Pike special functions that take a statement block as an argument. `inexpr-class' On a class definition inside an expression. This is used for anonymous classes and anonymous array initializers in Java. `substatement' On the first line after an `if', `while', `for', `do', or `else'. `substatement-open' On the brace that opens a substatement block. `case-label' On a `case' or `default' label. `access-label' On a C++ `private', `protected', or `public' access label. `label' On any ordinary label. `do-while-closure' On the `while' that ends a `do'-`while' construct. `else-clause' On the `else' of an `if'-`else' construct. `catch-clause' On the `catch' and `finally' lines in `try'...`catch' constructs in C++ and Java. `comment-intro' On a line containing only a comment introduction. `arglist-intro' On the first line in an argument list. `arglist-cont' On one of the subsequent argument list lines when no arguments follow on the same line as the arglist opening parenthesis. `arglist-cont-nonempty' On one of the subsequent argument list lines when at least one argument follows on the same line as the arglist opening parenthesis. `arglist-close' On the closing parenthesis of an argument list. `stream-op' On one of the lines continuing a stream operator construct. `inclass' On a construct that is nested inside a class definition. The indentation is relative to the open brace of the class definition. `inextern-lang' On a construct that is nested inside an external language block. `inexpr-statement' On the first line of statement block inside an expression. This is used for the GCC extension to C that uses the syntax `({ ... })'. It is also used for the special functions that takes a statement block as an argument in Pike. `inexpr-class' On the first line of a class definition inside an expression. This is used for anonymous classes and anonymous array initializers in Java. `cpp-macro' On the start of a cpp macro. `friend' On a C++ `friend' declaration. `objc-method-intro' On the first line of an Objective-C method definition. `objc-method-args-cont' On one of the lines continuing an Objective-C method definition. `objc-method-call-cont' On one of the lines continuing an Objective-C method call. `inlambda' Like `inclass', but used inside lambda (i.e. anonymous) functions. Only used in Pike. `lambda-intro-cont' On a line continuing the header of a lambda function, between the `lambda' keyword and the function body. Only used in Pike.